http://c.ymcdn.com/sites/www.iadms.org/resource/resmgr/imported/info/motor_learning.pdf
This piece of literature explores the various stages and processes in motor learning helping teachers become familiar with the variety of possible teaching and learning strategies to increase effectiveness in their practice.
VARIOUS STAGES IN THE MOTOR LEARNING PROCESS:
- Attention and observation (perception) of a demonstrated skill
- Replication (execution) of what has been observed
- Feedback (knowledge of results/performance and additional explanation)
- Repetition (Further practice)
All four of these stages prove to be essential in the motor learning process when teaching dance. In a typical dance class of mine, I will demonstrate and explain a dance combination or step providing the initial information to the dancer (attention and observation for the dancer). The dancer will then execute the movement I have demonstrated after observing me (replication). I will give feedback to my students (positive and negative) allowing them to make changes to what they are doing allowing the dancers to repeat the combination (repetition) taking onboard my feedback. With repetition the movement becomes a part of the dancer’s long-term memory. (Muscle memory)
When challenging my dancers with a completely different combination I tend to add movements we have worked on before into the piece which allows the dancer to recall the movement mentally, the literature refers to this as COVERT RECALL. After recalling the movement mentally the dancers then have to transfer the movement to physical execution referred to as OVERT RECALL. The final goal of the motor learning process is an image or concept of the task that is recalled at this level of execution, rather than a complicated series of details, multiple body parts or individual muscle activation, the motor skill is now imbedded in the long-term memory.
PERCEPTION
Perception has two components:
1) Students observes and organises his/her present experience
2) Meaning is attached to that observation based on past experience
Perception is dependant on the senses (Sight, touch, smell, hearing, tasting)
The literature suggests that when a teacher demonstrates a movement, a child may relate to any number of childhood games which relates to the movement. It uses an example of demonstrating a shift in weight (two feet on the floor to one foot on the floor). The child may relate to a childhood game where he/she tried to balance on one leg.
The literature talks about proprioceptive information and how it is integrated with input from the vestibular mechanism of the inner ear and vision accorded by the eyes. Proprioception is when the nerve cells (the bones, muscles, tendons, ligaments, joints and skin all have specialised tissues – nerve cells) receive information during stance and movement and transmits this information to the brain allowing it to process,. Balance, and the ability to transfer weight through space, are major components of dance and highly dependence on well developed and well integrated proprioceptive, vestibular and visual systems. A point that stood out to me in this paragraph was that ‘teachers should realise that these three systems do not integrate until after 7 years old, and are not fully mature until much later, probably late teens or early adulthood’ Therefore I have to realise what movement is suitable for a child under the age of 7 realising that it is not going to be a smooth transition if I give them a shift of weight/balance.
Perceptual skills include hand-eye co-ordination, rhythm, visual discrimination, special discrimination, body control, and balance. These perceptual skills are inherited rather than learned but can be enhanced by training. ‘The goal of the teacher is to take the innate skills that students bring to the class and fine-tune these abilities’ Every student has different skills and abilities, it is then up to me to recognise the skills of each individual and work on developing and expanding their skills allowing them to become stronger, more able dancers. ‘Each child brings to class a specific set of learning tools. The child’s ability to ‘stay on task’ (known as task persistence) the Childs personal sense of rhythm and musicality, preferred speed of moving and spatial preferences all must be taken into account when teaching’ The literature talks about how it is impossible for a teacher to design a class that addresses each individual learning variation and suggests that the teacher should have an awareness of the range of tools the student brings, the teacher can then provide a better range of material and presentational approaches.
PERCEPTION TO MOVEMENT
‘ The teacher must make the most critical aspects of the movement apparent, and a variety of strategies can be employed to help the dancer succeed’ It is best if the teacher focuses initially on specific points – arms, or the rhythm, or the spatial pattern – and progress to more complexity over time. The teacher may want to emphasize only the shape of the legs for the first attempts. Another teacher may chose to emphasize the quick dynamics of the movement.
‘Learning a dance or movement skill is, in part dependent upon how the information is presented’ I believe as a teacher that I should always demonstrate what I what the dancers to do with 100% energy and commitment to the movement. They are going to be reflection of what and how I demonstrate so I need to think carefully of how I present information to my students.
VISUAL – The teacher can demonstrate the movement to the students, allowing them to carefully observe
VERBAL – The teacher can communicate with the students and verbally explain the process and proper execution to the students, and use hands on approach to assist in achieving the task. For example, correcting the dancer’s alignment by slightly moving their body.
The literature suggests that verbal instruction tends to be the most often used strategy in a dance class, although it might not be the most effective when used alone. Research has stressed the importance of visual model (i.e. having a more advanced dancer to observe) for students to imitate. In one of my dance classes I was talking about the dynamics of movements and how important they are in a dance piece. The dancers didn’t seem to be picking up on dynamic, so I sat them down and performed the combination full out allowing them to observe me and pick up on my dynamics. I then asked the students where I used the different dynamics in the piece and how they related to the music. The outcome was that the children had visually seen how the dynamics should look allowing them to implement the dynamics into their own performance. However the teacher needs to emphasize that the desired result is not to try to look exactly like the demonstration, but to take that visual model and apply it to the students own physique and attributes.
The literature describes how it can be beneficial for dancers to observe their peers attempting the material, and working through problems and errors. By seeing others correct and improve the attempted skill, the dancers can see what constitutes a successful strategy, and try applying it to their own experiences. Making mistakes is a natural part of the process, a necessary component of learning to dance so this process has the benefits of encouraging the idea of making mistakes is natural. ‘When students develop an overwhelming fear of making mistakes, it can limit their progresses’.
FEEDBACK AND REPETITION
‘Watching and doing should be the pre-dominant strategy in teaching, and verbal instruction should be secondary, especially when the dancers are seeing and learning a task for the first time’ The literature suggests that at the stage of considerable repetition, verbal input can be an important factor in the learning process. Knowledge of results is the term used in motor learning when the learner is given information relating to what the execution of the movement has actually achieved. This might mean telling the dancer that he/she did not do something to achieve the movement or position. The piece tells me how feedback is an important component of the motor learning process. Repetition without feedback does not necessarily result in improvement and that the challenge for the teacher is to give sufficient feedback without overloading the student with too much information.
The literature points out that there are many theories about the amount of repetition needed before movement patterns become part of the long-term or ‘habitual’ memory, which is probably dependant in part of the individual student’s innate abilities, focus, and concentration and kinaesthetic awareness. Research in motor learning has revealed an understanding of repetition and that research on dance skill acquisition indicates that continuing practice can improve a motor skill. Once the movement is being executed correctly and efficiently, repetition will then ingrain the skill into the body. There is also a negative aspect of this effect which teachers need to be aware of, if students practice incorrectly, these too will become ingrained, and retraining can be difficult, frustrating and time consuming. It is down to me as the teacher to recognize a student practicing a movement incorrectly in the early stages, allowing me to correct the student before it gets too late. The piece states how younger dancers will reach attention overload sooner than older dancers. An advanced dancer might be able to receive feedback that corrects the alignment, changes the position of the arms, alters the speed and dynamic of the movement and think about performance, whereas the younger dancer may only be able to execute one of these corrections. ‘Employing a range of feedback mechanisms is the most effective method of enhancing motor learning’.
It has been demonstrated that mental practice (seeing oneself doing the movement before execution) can enhance skill development beyond what can be accomplished through physical practice alone. It should also be noted that mental practice of a skill is not effective if the student has never actually executes the skill, so this strategy is more useful for more skilled dancers than untrained ones.
SETTING GOALS AND MOTIVATING DANCERS
The literature states that goal setting and motivation belong in the dance psychology realm; they also play a role in motor learning by enhancing and focusing attention, and by increasing ones willingness to participate in repetition. Setting goals for the dance class allows the teacher to provide a positive atmosphere that will be conducive to learning and achieving. Establishing goals set and explained by the dance teacher for the short term (class) or long term (month) is an effective and efficient teaching tool in the motor learning process. Even before the dancers are attempting a movement, they may be more inclined to practice the easier version of the movement if they see and know the overall goal. The literature suggests that this forward looking strategy creates excitement and anticipation, and motivation is key in skill acquisition.
Additional factors effecting motor learning:
Learning styles:
The literature puts emphasis on how important it is for teachers to understand how much variation exists in the way that dance students learn and process information enabling the teacher’s strategies to broaden. Some children may learn more easily if the teacher emphasizes rhythm and musical context. Other children might have more success if they are informed with a sense of the shape design of the movement. Others might do well working in pairs and assisting each other. ‘Teachers can be more effective if they recognise these learning styles and accommodate them, providing a broad spectrum of methods to perceive and attempt the same skill. The literature talks about the educational considerations by Howard Gardner and that the wide variety of learning strategies is referred to as multiple intelligences. These intelligences include:
- Linguistic: the use of words, by they written or spoken.
- Logical/Mathematical: ability to reason, consider abstractions, use numerical skills.
- Spatial: awareness of space and how objects (and the self) occupy space.
- Musical: a sense of rhythm, pitch and musical composition.
- Kinaesthetic: a sense of the body and movement ability.
- Interpersonal: interactions with others.
- Intrapersonal: awareness of self and personal goals and standards.
Each child will bring to class a specific set of learning tools and cognitive behaviours, as spoken about previously, the teacher will have to help all students learn using different methods suited to the individual.
Finally the literature suggests that using mirrors enhances learning, but there is evidence that visual information from the mirror is distorted (two-dimensional), which may diminish kinaesthetic awareness and learning. Additionally there is evidence in the psychology field suggesting that constant use of the mirror may negatively affect self-esteem in young dancers.
Overall this piece of literature has broadened my knowledge on my main line of inquiry:
Question - What are the different strategies and methods teachers should have to help with the continuous improvement of students in a dance class setting?
Discovering boundaries?
Motivational strategies?
Creating an enabling environment?
Creating positive relationships?
This piece of literature has gone into detail about the different strategies in teaching dance, and how important it is for teachers to have a broad range of strategies to help with the continuous growth and improvement of children in the dance class. It is based mainly on the motor learning process and goes into detail about how the 4 various stages of the motor-learning process prove to be essential when teaching dance. By reading this I have learnt the importance of a teacher recognising the variation in the way a child learns. This will allow me to add different elements of methods into my practice allowing each individual to learn their preferred way. The two pieces of literature I have now reviewed are both based on the subject of ‘strategies and methods of teaching a dance class’ however both the pieces of literature provide me with completely different information and knowledge, allowing me to look at the broader spectrum of the subject. Although they intertwine in some ways, they suggest different strategies for a dance teacher, both being neither right nor wrong but giving me different angles to look at my inquiry from.
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